writings: It gets sunny, I get a crush, tragic love and such
Correspondent's Memo: Japan
This was one of my assignments for JTC412: International Mass Communications. This assignment was very thought provoking as it gave me a baseline in case I want to report abroad in my future. I throughly enjoyed this assignment as I learned more about the media in a foreign country.
Executive Summary
After World War II, Japan quickly rose to become the second largest free-market economy in the world (U.S. Department of State 8). Despite this, Japan has been currently experiencing several hardships in regards to their economy. Japan’s bubble economy was bust in 2008 when the country fell into its first serious recession (CIA 7). Since then, government parties such as the Liberal Democratic Party and the Democratic Party of Japan have been butting heads with one another in regards to government policies to provide relief to the economic situation.
In addition, Prime Minister Yukio Hatoyama was elected into his position as of January 7, 1989 (CIA 6). According to a recent article, “two out of three Japanese voters disapprove” of Hatoyama (Reuters 1). This statistic suggests that there is dissent among the public in regards to the prime minister and his policies towards aiding the Japanese economy.
In regards to the Japanese media system, this press system can be associated with the developmental press concept. While Japanese news agencies do not have to support government policies and developments, they are urged by important officials such as the prime minister for continual support through editorial and opinion reviews.
Also, I have determined that there is a distinctive uniformity of media content in Japan. Nearly all of the newspapers content and headlines are seamlessly identical from one another. In addition, an entity known as the press club allows a simplistic method for spreading the same information and content to be used in articles and broadcasts. As a result of these characteristics, Japanese journalists rarely engage in investigative reporting and rely on provided information.
I hope you will find this briefing guide to be interesting and informative. I delved into the heart of Japan, and have learned much in regards to their economy and the press system. I have thoroughly enjoyed learning about this country, and I hope you will enjoy my findings.
General Information about Japan
- Location On the edge of East Asia, Japan is prominently wedged between the North Pacific Ocean and the Sea of Japan. China, Russia, and the Korean Peninsula lie directly north west of Japan. Comparatively, Japan is described as being “slightly smaller than California” (CIA 2). Japan’s total land area is approximately 364,485 square kilometers (CIA 2).
- Climate and Geography Japan’s mountainous terrain accounts for 73% of the land (CIA 2; U.S. Department of State 3). The country is a series of small islands including Hokkaido, Honshu (the mainland), Shikoku, and Kyushu that are surrounded by a vast coastline that is approximately 29,751 kilometers (CIA 2; U.S. Department of State 3). In addition, the country is characterized by tropical climates in the southern Japan and contrasting brisk climates in northern Japan (Bowring et al. 7). For example, on the northernmost main island, Sapporo experiences “warm summers and long, cold winters with heavy snowfall” (U.S. Department of State 3). Many cities located on the mainland have mild winters with little to no snow and “hot, humid summers” (U.S. Department of State 3). In addition, the lowest elevation of lake Hachirogata is precisely -4 meters (CIA 2). In contrast, the highest elevation in Japan is 3,776 meters at Mount Fuji which can be prominently seen from Tokyo on a clear day (Bowring et al. 9; CIA 2). Also, Japan is settled in a volcanic zone along the Pacific Ocean that results in 1,500 tremors that occur every year (CIA 3). Furthermore, earthquakes, tsunamis and typhoons account for Japan’s natural hazards (CIA 3).
- Government The Japanese legal system is fashioned after English-American civil law systems that influenced a “parliamentary government with a constitutional monarchy” (CIA 5). Despite this, the Japanese government shares a similarity with the United States government by incorporating judicial review in the Japanese Supreme Court (CIA 5). In addition, the Japanese government is broken into three branches of government that include the executive, legislative, and judicial branch that serve as a series of check and balances for government decisions and regulations (CIA 6).
- Political Issues Subsequently after World War II, the Liberal Democratic Party (LDP) intermittently controlled the political structure until the Democratic Party of Japan (DPJ) swept a victorious majority win in the 2009 elections (U.S. Department of State 8). Since the elections, plummeting approval ratings suggest that there is dissent among the public in regards to Prime Minister Yukio Hatoyama’s political and economical progress for Japan (Fackler 1). Despite this, political experts praise the DPJ’s goals to end bureaucracy in Japan by “empowering democratically elected politicians” (Fackler 1).
- Socioeconomic Issues Concluding World War II, Japan quickly rose to become the second largest free-market economy in the world resulting from a devoted work ethic and a mastery of advanced technology (CIA 7). Following the war, Japan constructed a close and interwoven partnership between manufacturers, suppliers, and distributors (CIA 7). In addition, these parties were guaranteed “lifetime employment for a substantial portion of the urban labor force” (CIA 7). Despite this, these characteristics that resulted from a post-era economy are now deteriorating due to “global competition and domestic demographic change” (CIA 7).
- Economic Conditions & Issues Japan experienced an exceptionally high economic growth rate “from the 1960s through the 1980s” (U.S. Department of State 8). However, in the 1990s Japan’s “bubble economy” experienced a slow decrease that resulted in the decline of stock and real estate prices (U.S. Department of State 8). Despite this setback, Japan’s economy did recover by expanding slowly at approximately 1% per year in contrast to 4% per year prior to the economic decline (U.S. Department of State 8). After several years of economic growth, Japan hurtled into its first recession in 2008 as a result of a “global demand for Japan’s exports” (CIA 7).
The head of the executive branch is Emperor Akihito who has held the position of chief of state since January 7, 1989 (CIA 6). A key member of this branch includes Prime Minister Yukio Hatoyama who has the ability to appoint and remove ministers (U.S. Department of State 7). In addition, the legislative branch is a bicameral body that is referred to as the National Diet of Japan and consists of the House of Councilors and the House of Representatives (CIA 6). Finally, the independent judicial branch consists of the Supreme Court and a chief justice who is appointed by chief of state (U.S. Department of State 7).
There are seven major political parties that exist in the Diet. These parties are the Democratic Party of Japan, the Social Democratic Party, the People’s New Party, the Liberal Democratic Party, the New Clean Government Party, the Japan Communist Party, and Your Party (U.S. Department of State 7).
Since then, several measures have been taken in regards to economic reformations in order to eradicate Japan’s mounting public debt. In 2007, Japan Post was created by the Liberal Democratic Party to be a privatized, national postal delivery system to spur economic growth (CIA 7). However, in 2009 the Democratic Party of Japan enacted a law to “freeze future sales” of Japan Post’s market shares in order to terminate the privatization process (CIA 7). In addition, the Japanese government approved a $1 trillion budget in hopes to cease Japan’s stagnant economy (Tabuchi 1).
To conclude, there are mixed opinions in regards to Japan’s public debt. Government parties such as the Liberal Democratic Party and the Democratic Party of Japan are at odds with each other and have very different perceptions of what could help their nation during this economic crisis. Also, analysts are debating whether Japan will be able to finance this debt this year and some predict that Japan will default by 2011 (Gordon 1). However, there is a glimmer of hope as the Bank of Japan predicts that Japan will experience moderate economic growth in 2010 (U.S. Department of State 8).
News Media and Japan
- Media Circulation Japan has five major, national newspapers that are Asahi, Mainichi, Nikkei, Yomiuri, and Sankei (Silverblatt et al. 190). The overall circulation for these major newspapers is 27,523,000, which accounts for roughly 51 percent of the “total circulation of 53,710,000” (Silverblatt et al. 190). In addition, the individual daily circulation is as follows: Asashi, 8,280,000; Mainichi, 3,960,000; Nikkei, 3,000,000; Yomiuri, 10,230,000, and Sankei, 2,010,000 (Silverblatt et al. 190-191). These statistics suggest that the majority of the Japanese population obtain their news from national newspapers. To compare, popular news organizations such as the New York Times, the Washington Post, the London Times, the Guardian, and Le Monde only accumulate a total circulation of 5,070,000 (Silverblatt et al. 191). To conclude, the total circulation for the five major Japanese newspapers surpasses the circulation some of the most well known and credible news organizations in the United States and the United Kingdom combined.
- Media Ownership In general, newspaper ownership generally belongs to either company stock or is family owned. The table below depicts this trend of ownership in Japan’s national newspapers (Silverblatt et al. 191).
- Newspapers The dominant characteristic in the Japanese media is the “uniformity of media content” (Silverblatt et al. 188). For example, front page headlines in the newspapers are nearly indistinguishable (Silverblatt et al. 188). Also, news articles and their context are similarly identical (Silverblatt et al. 188). Several factors such as the straightline principle, the early edition exchange, and the Japanese press club contribute to the “uniformity of media content” (Silverblatt et al. 190).
- Television and Radio Japan’s system of television broadcasting is known as a “dual system” which includes public and sponsored broadcasting (Silverblatt et al. 192). This is Japan’s only “national public service television station (NHK)” (Freeman 17). In addition, the prime minister of Japan appoints a twelve-person committee that is responsible for managing the NHK (Silverblatt et al. 192).
- Media Interests and Availability of Information Although there are no explicit interests in the media, many journalists and television hosts restrict their commentator’s opinions as a result of the uniformity of media content (Silverblatt et al. 188-190). For example, journalists will make an effort to limit the aims and scope of a given point of view. Furthermore, it is especially rare for minority opinions to become evident in the media in relation to topics such as “the Gulf War, the Palestinian problem, the nuclear power plant problem, globalization, and the simultaneous terrorism against the United States on September 11” (Silverblatt et al. 190). In most cases, minority opinions surface in documentaries rather than in newspapers and television broadcasts (Silverblatt et al. 190).
- Overview Japan is currently ranked 17 out of the 175 countries listed on the Reporters Without Borders Press Freedom Index of 2009 (Reporters Without Borders 2009 1). Japan has significantly improved on this scale as this country was previously ranked 29 out of 173 countries in 2008 (Reporters Without Borders 2008 1). These numbers imply that Japan has very minimal threats that impede the level of freedom for this press system. Furthermore, the Japanese press system allows journalists to conduct their work in a relatively safe environment. Despite this, the Japanese press system is not without flaws. There are gray areas in various legalities that occasionally intrude on Japan’s press freedoms.
- Nuances in the Japanese Constitution Article 21 of the Japanese Constitution explicitly states, “freedom of assembly and association as well as speech, press and all other forms of expression is guaranteed” (Kim 113). In addition, Articles 12 and 13 of the Japanese Constitution states that the freedom of expression is not to interfere public welfare (Kim 113). Furthermore, the Japanese Supreme Court utilizes a questionable method of logic in order to determine whether freedom of expression is damaging the public welfare (Kim 113). While the Japanese Supreme Court does not tolerate restrictions of freedom, this undefined concept of public welfare can be detrimental to the Japanese press system.
- Japanese Broadcasting and the Constitution Although Japanese broadcasting does try to stay within the boundaries of Broadcast Act and the Constitution, press freedoms are occasionally infringed upon. For example, several “taboos” exist in Japanese programming such as the “cherry blossoms taboo” where broadcasters are restricted from mentioning the Japanese Self-Defense forces (Silverblatt et al. 193). In addition, the “mum taboo” restricts broadcasters from mentioning the emperor’s family (Silverblatt et al. 193). Finally, the “crane taboo” prohibits broadcasters from mentioning the Soka-Gakkai Buddhist sect that was established concluding World War II (Silverblatt et al. 193). To conclude, these restrictions encroach on the press freedoms that are guaranteed by the Japanese constitution.
- Government Influences on the Mass Media While the Japanese press system is similar to a western press system because of their ability to benefit from free liberties and the freedom of expression, this press system can also be identified with the developmental concept of press systems. Although journalists are not forced into to support the Japanese government and their national goals, they are certainly encouraged to do so.
- Overview Although CNN has provided a suitable amount of coverage for Japan, I have concluded that we can spice up our stories with issues that will be engaging for our audience. After analyzing articles on Japan from both CNN and our competitors, I have several suggestions on how to improve coverage from Japan to make our news more informative and enticing to the reader. Furthermore, I have concluded that there are ways to conduct coverage from Japan so it has a connection to our audience here in the United States.
- Increase in Number of Correspondents in Japan One suggestion for CNN is to increase the number of correspondent in Japan. While, Kyung Lah is doing an excellent job of covering Japan for CNN, this was the only correspondent I saw listed in the byline for each article. While Japan is geographically small, additional correspondents would be perfect for balanced and rounded coverage of the area. Also, an increase in correspondents would be beneficial in covering these important topics in a timely manner that would be well worth the expenditure.
- Japan's Financial Situation In regards to Japan’s fiscal situation, I feel like the majority of Americans are unaware that Japan is facing troubled times. In order to improve this situation, I feel like we should provide more coverage to make this important issue more prevalent in the world news. In addition, the United States and Japan share a commonality as a result of being powerful nations who are struggling under a massive debt. Furthermore, I believe that both citizens of the United States and Japan are concerned with their government’s solution to this critical issue. Therefore, I suggest that CNN should utilize these similarities to our advantage for the audience.
- Cultural Aspects of Japan Sometimes, I feel that an audience will want to learn more about a country because of cultural differences. As a result, I think that providing a cultural aspect of coverage is pivotal in order to generate inquisitive readers in the realms of international coverage. In particular, I enjoyed Kyung Lah’s article “Japan’s housewives helping to drive deflation?” This article focused in on the housewives of Japan and provided an interesting and thought provoking insight into a potential relief to Japan’s bubble bust economy (Lah 1). Likewise, it would be interesting to have our reporters cover issues which could be related to the economy or otherwise, and write articles that possess very distinctive cultural elements. In this type of story, commonality would not be the card to play, but rather utilize traits that are distinctively foreign in order to intrigue our audience to keep reading the coverage related to Japan. Finally, stories that promote diversity would ultimately aide our goal in increasing readership in international coverage through a means of interest.
| National Newspapers | Ownership |
| Asahi | Murayama family |
| Mainichi | Shareholding commission of Mainichi employees |
| Nikkei | Nikkei Mutal Prosperity Association; Nikkei Welfare Association |
| Yomiuri | Unknown. Presumed to be family owned. |
| Sankei | Fuji-Sankei Group; Shikanai family. |
| From International Communications: A Media Literacy Approach | |
|---|---|
In addition, television ownership usually belongs to newspaper companies. Below is a table that outlines the major television stations and its majority ownership (Silverblatt et al. 191-192).
| Television Stations | Primary Ownership |
| TV Asahi | Asahi (33.85 percent); Toei (16.09 percent); Shogakukan (4.62 percent) |
| Nippon Television Network Corp. | Yomiuri (8.48 percent); Tsuneo Watanabe (president of Yomiuri, owning 6.35 percent); Chase Manhattan Bank (2.36 percent); self-company ownership (5.94 percent) |
| Fuji TV | Nippon Broadcasting (34.12 percent); Toho (6.83 percent); Bunka Broadcasting (3.63 percent) |
| TV Tokyo | Nikkei (43.5 percent) |
| TBS | Mitsubishi Trust and Banking Corporation (6.82 percent); Japan trustee service trust banks (6.59 percent); Nippon Life (5.67 percent); Sakura Bank (4.72 percent); Misui Trust and Banking Company, Ltd. (4.25 percent) |
| From International Communications: A Media Literacy Approach | |
|---|---|
The combination of the “straight line principle” and the early edition exchange reinforce the uniformity of media content. These strategies allows newspapers to “compete to report the same news” while exchanging editions of the newspaper in order to be spared the humiliation of being exposed by rival news agencies (Silverblatt et al. 190). In addition, morning television programs dictate what stories will appear in the daily newspapers (Silverblatt et al. 190). Likewise, afternoon news programs demonstrate what stories should be given more attention for the evening newspaper (Silverblatt et al. 190). Finally, Saturday and Sunday editions of the newspaper oftentimes recapitulate coverage from the previous news week (Silverblatt et al. 190).
In addition, an entity known as the press club strengthens the uniformity of media content. The press club receives the inflow of information from the government, corporations, and other sources via press conferences (Silverblatt et al. 190). In some cases, a “fit” reporter will interview a source and will be responsible for passing the information on to other members of the press club (Silverblatt et al. 190). As a result, Japanese journalists rarely engage in investigative reporting and simply rely on the press club for accurate information (Silverblatt et al. 190).
The NHK consists of “three radio channels and overseas broadcasting by five televisions channels” (Silverblatt et al. 192). The stations in Tokyo are the prominent in product and distribution for sponsored broadcasting for 127 television companies and 101 radio companies (Silverblatt et al. 192). These five primary stations are affiliated with several local television stations (Silverblatt et al. 192).
The Broadcast Act implements a set of principles into Japanese programming. These principles require that broadcasters be “prohibited from injuring public welfare and social morals” (Silverblatt et al. 193). In addition, coverage should be politically unbiased and not sensationalized (Silverblatt et al. 193). Furthermore, coverage should involve an array of perspectives on any given subject (Silverblatt et al. 193). Also, the Constitution guarantees freedom of speech, press, and any other form of expression (Silverblatt et al. 193). Together, the Constitution and the Broadcast Act work simultaneously to create unrestricted coverage for the public interest. Despite this, there are occasional contradictions between the Japanese Constitution and the Broadcast Act that hinder the freedom of the press. To learn more about this, please read the “Challenges in the Media” section.
The uniformity of media content has produced identical coverage in newspapers by incorporating the same sources and stories (Silverblatt et al. 188). As a result, there is a lack of ideological viewpoints in the Japanese media system (Silverblatt et al. 191). Despite this, newspapers do occasionally reflect various Japanese ideals. For example, national newspapers such as Asahi and Mainichi represent a leftist perspective that represents “postwar democracy in Japan” (Silverblatt et al. 191). In addition, Yomiuri and Sankei represent the right wing with a “neoconservative perspective” (Silverblatt et al. 191). To conclude, the national newspapers achieve this by incorporating their ideologies through editorials and opinion reviews (Silverblatt et al. 191).
Challenges in the Media
In most cases, the Japanese Supreme Court will overrule the expression of freedom if it creates “clear and present danger” to interests of state, society, or individuals (Kim 114-115). In a case involving the interest of the state, freedom of expression may be limited for the “convenience of the government” (Kim 114). For instance, in a case involving the distribution of pamphlets, which urged the Japanese police to refuse orders from the “traitorous Japanese government,” the Supreme Court overruled this expression of freedom because it infringed on the government’s ability to serve the public (Kim 114). In addition, an example of an interest of society occurred in 1960’s when the Japanese Supreme Court deemed the prior restraint of a mass group as constitutional because it had the potential to wreak havoc in society (Kim 115). This particular decision has spurred debate among several scholars as this decision demonstrated “prior restraint on freedom of expression” on the notion that danger was “clear and present” (Kim 115).
To conclude, the Japanese Supreme Court’s measure of public welfare is very unclear. Unsurprisingly, there has been much criticism by students towards the Constitution and the Supreme Court (Kim 116). While the Japanese government does not expressly condone delimiting freedom of expression, these degrees of subtly make it possible for such freedoms to be diminished.
In addition, the Radio Law was produced as a result of the shortage of electric waves that are available in addition to the “social influence and power of broadcasting” (Silverblatt et al. 193). Under the Radio Law, Japanese broadcasting is under a license system (Silverblatt et al. 193). A license can be used for five years and then must be renewed by the Ministry of Public Management, Home Affairs, or Posts and Telecommunications (Silverblatt et al. 193). Despite this, the Radio Law restricts Japanese broadcasting because not everyone is heard as a result of the complications between the scarcity of airwaves and social influences.
Relationships are made between the government and special representatives of the mass media that develop into contracts (Kim 160). For example, the prime minister maintains close ties with “newspaper presidents, managing editors, and editor writers,” by treating them to a meal (Kim 160). During this meeting, the prime minister will outline important national developments that are to be covered in the media (Kim 160).
Despite this, Japan is not an authoritarian press system and in most cases, newspapers support the government through editorial and opinion articles (Kim 160). Furthermore, the majority of newspaper coverage does it best to stay political unbiased as a result of the Broadcast Act and the Constitution (Silverblatt et al. 193). However, this method of government influence could result in the media to undermine their watchdog roles. To reiterate this statement, Ryu Shintaro, former chief editorial writer of Asahi said, “If a newsman participates in government commissions indiscriminately or excessively, he runs the risk of losing the critical attitude needed for obtaining information, and in the end, it may be impossible to distinguish him from a government employee” (Kim 161). In other words, these reporters could face loosing their distinguished roles as a journalist, and instead appear as a messenger for the itinerary of the Japanese government.
Advice for CNN
For example, we could provide a series of opinion articles to compare the countries and determine which government is doing a better job at relieving the economy of the tight fiscal situation. For this particular story, statistics from government agencies or interviewing economists from each country would be beneficial. As a result, we would be able to compare numbers to determine how each country is faring over an array of issues such as unemployment, poverty, health care, and financial instability. Furthermore, we could release a monthly or bi-weekly schedule to discuss only one of these issues. In addition, the comparison between the two countries would entice readers to read these articles because it holds a connection to the United States.
Another idea is to feature an in-depth story about the Japan’s economic situation. Similar to the opinion article idea, we could research government agencies and interview economists from each respective country. In this particular story, I would like to ask sources what would happen if Japan were to default in the near future. My gut feeling tells me that there is a serious connection between the United States and our Japanese trading partners. If Japan were to default, ultimately I feel that our United States audience needs to be aware of the effects that would play out as a result of Japan’s financial situation. To conclude, if our audience is more conscious of the United States’ connection to Japan in face of a financial default, our readers will keep coming back to CNN to stay updated on recent developments.
Finally, another story idea is to concentrate on the political leaders of Japan. According the New York Times, a poll shows that “two out of three Japanese voters disapprove of Prime Minister Yukio Hatoyama” (Reuters 1). As a result of this striking statistic, I would like to interview Japanese residents and explore their reasoning for political dissent. For example, I would inquire citizens as to whether they have suffered from the current or previous prime minister’s actions while in office. Furthermore, I would try to pinpoint where the dissent has been established, whether it has arose from family life or in the workplace. In addition, I would like opinions as to whether Yukio Hatoyama is doing a better job in office compared to previous prime ministers, or whether this official is following a downhill trend. Finally, I would like to determine what Japanese citizens are looking for in their politicians, in addition to proposed solutions that they believe would benefit the nation of Japan.
Bibliography
Bowring, Richard John. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Japan. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1993.
Central Intelligence Agency. 21 Apr. 2010. CIA – The World Factbook – Japan. 17 Mar. 2010.
Chang, Gordon. “Will Japan Default?” Forbes.com, Mar. 15, 2010.
Fackler, Martin. “Japan Leader Aims to Root Out Bureaucrats.” New York Times, Mar. 24, 2010.
Freeman, Laurie Anne. Closing the Shop: Information Cartels And Japan’s Mass Media. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2000.
Kim, Young C. Japanese Journalists And Their World. Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1981.
Lah, Kyung. “Japan’s housewives helping to drive deflation?” CNN.com Apr. 29, 2010.
Reporters Without Borders. Press Freedom Index 2009. 17 Mar. 2010.
© Blair Greenwood, 2010